Abstract. There are many interlocking factors determining the introduction of astronomy education in Zambia. The process of infusing this new subject in an education system so centralised as that of Zambia is extremely complex. At school level the process is more complex than at University level, as a central body, the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), whose priorities are determined by perceived social and economic needs of the country, develops all syllabi. The prevailing notion in Zambia is that astronomy has no direct bearing on future employment needs. It is therefore not surprising that astronomy is at the bottom of the priority list among school subjects. The recent upsurge of interest in astronomy at the University of Zambia opens up the necessary background for developing astronomy in both school and University curricula. The University has recently formed the Zambia Astronomical Society and the Working Group on Space Science in Zambia. Coupled to this are exchange visits and collaborative work between the Physics Department of the University of Zambia and the South African Astronomical Observatory. In this paper we present a critical review of the current activities in space science in Zambia and how they relate to the development of astronomy education.

Sommaire. Il y a de nombreux facteurs qui influent sur la décision d'introduire l'enseignement de l'astronomie en Zambie. Le processus pour insuffler cette nouvelle matière dans un système éducatif aussi centralisé qu'en Zambie, est extrêmement complexe. Au niveau scolaire le processus est plus complexe qu'au niveau universitaire, en ce sens qu'un organisme central, le Centre de Développement des Programmes (CDC) dont les priorités sont déterminées par les besoins sociaux et économiques du pays perçus comme tels, développe tous les syllabus. L'idée qui prévaut en Zambie est que l'astronomie n'a aucun rapport direct avec les besoins futurs de l'emploi. Il n'est donc pas étonnant que l'astronomie soit au bas de la liste prioritaire des matières scolaires. La récente augmentation d'intérêt pour l'astronomie à l'Université de Zambie ouvre le contexte nécessaire pour développer l'astronomie à la fois dans les programmes scolaires et universitaires. L'Université s'est récemment dotée de la Société Astronomique et du Groupe de Travail sur les Sciences Spatiales en Zambie. En parallèle ont lieu des voyages d'échange et des travaux en collaboration entre le Département de Physique de l'Université de Zambie et l'Observatoire Astronomique d'Afrique du Sud. Dans cet article, nous présentons un rapport critique sur les activités actuelles en sciences spatiales en Zambie et nous montrons comment elles sont associées au développement de l'enseignement de l'astronomie.

Astronomy is fundamentally an ancient science which has played an important role in the general development of modern science and technology. At the XII Hamburg IAU General Assembly held in 1964, Commission 46, which is devoted to the Teaching of Astronomy, was created. The creation of this new commission made astronomy an educational tool, which has to date found its way into the curricula of many universities worldwide. It is rather disappointing to note that such a treasured and developed science is non-existent in the curriculum of our University. What therefore is the missing link? Does it mean that astronomy has no direct relevance to the development of science and technology in Zambia, or is it simply a non-exciting science? An attempt to trace the many factors determining the missing link requires a detailed and lengthy analysis of several factors influencing the physics/science curriculum in Zambia. It is not the intention of this paper to do this analysis; however we can easily point to the fact that science and technology are social phenomena which must be included in the social transformation and organization of a country. Both developed and developing countries follow this path, but with different degrees of success. In order to succeed in the application of science for social and economic development, the teaching of science must be broad-based. This has not been the case in Zambia; the emphasis on science and technology subjects has always been determined by:

• The government;
• External agents;
• The interests of individuals or groups of scientists and teachers.

Zambia's educational practices are based on conceptions of education and science derived from colonial experience. Our history of colonial rule, combined with the post-independence government policy on science education and research has unfortunately resulted in low levels of scientific and technological progress. A central body, currently known as Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), has always developed the school curriculum, during both colonial and postcolonial eras. CDC is a government body and its approach to curriculum development is largely determined by government policy on social and economic needs of the country. CDC is responsible for developing curricula for all primary and secondary schools, pre-schools and preservice primary school teacher training programs.

Space Science in the School Curriculum
Unfortunately, the centralized arrangement of developing school curricula makes it difficult to infuse new curricular materials and often leads to a very narrow selection of science topics. The current school curriculum addresses some elements of basic space science. A topic known as Universe I is taught in grade 5 of the primary school syllabus. This topic introduces simple ideas of the solar system and features of the night sky. Universe II, which is a further study of the solar system and the position of the earth in the Universe, is taught in Grade 8 of the secondary school syllabus. The content includes planets, comparison of Mars and Earth, stars, galaxies and the Universe. Universe II marks the end of space science topics at school level.

The great weakness of the school curriculum in Zambia involves assumptions that some kinds of areas of knowledge are more important than others, and space science is among the less emphasised. Though appearing in the school curriculum, space science topics have often been omitted by most schoolteachers. The common notion is that these topics have no direct bearing on the future career prospects of an ordinary Zambian. Space science is viewed by most schoolteachers as a subject for developed countries with capabilities in space technology. In our opinion, the large percentage of teachers with an inadequate understanding of space science contributes to the omission of these topics in their lessons. The findings of an informal interview conducted among some of the students admitted to the physics department of the University of Zambia show that at least 30% of school leavers have not studied the Universe topics. We later discovered that these topics have been excluded from school science examination questions. This, combined with the fact that space science is a non-career subject, provides sufficient grounds for pupils and teachers to shun it. The implications of shunning space science at school level have a detrimental effect on the promotion of astronomy education. At a lot of effort must be put into reversing the negative attitude students and teachers have about space science.

Schools and Departments of the University have the statutory authority to formulate their own syllabuses. There are, however, many setbacks for introducing new material and courses into the existing curriculum. The constraints are mostly attributed to low funding levels and difficulty in securing high-level academic personnel. Recently the University of Zambia witnessed the emergence of new courses dictated by the rapidly changing world-wide educational system. The advent of free market and democracy has brought in educational values that prepare young people for induction into today's competitive economy. Successfully introduced at the University of Zambia, in preference to traditional courses, are courses in human rights, democracy, computer studies, energy and environmental studies, etc. The broadening of University curricula reflects changes that can be made when suitable conditions are met.

Having provided the general overview of curriculum development in Zambia, we shall now focus on the feasibility of developing astronomy education under the prevailing education conditions. From what has been said it might appear that astronomy has no room in the current educational system in Zambia. The question we must ask ourselves is: What type of instruments and methods do we have at our disposal for astronomy to compete favourably with courses dictated by the economic climate in Zambia? The answer to this question lies in the recent upsurge of interest in astronomy at the University of Zambia. There are three major initiatives in the Department of Physics which are aimed at promoting astronomy in Zambia. These initiatives offer the necessary background and opportunity for infusing astronomy in both school and University curricula. Additionally, there are dedicated members of the Physics Department who are available and willing to spend a considerable part of their time and thought in organizing these activities.

The three initiatives are:

1. The formation of the Zambia Astronomical Society;
2. The formation of the Working Group on Space Science in Zambia;
3. The participation of the Physics Department in exchange visits and collaborative work with the South African Astronomical Observatory.

1. Public lectures, seminars and exhibitions. ZAS will collect books, magazines, slides, movies,
   journals, etc., on astronomy and make them available to interested parties.
2. Assisting the promotion and introduction of astronomy courses and activities in school, college
   and university curricula.
3. Encouraging coordinated research programmes and exchange visits between institutions within
   and outside Zambia.

The Working Group on Space Sciences in Zambia (WGSSZ)
The Working Group on Space Sciences in Zambia was formed on 27 May, 1999, as an affiliate of the Working Group on Space Sciences in Africa (WGSSA). African delegates to the 6th UN/ESA Workshop on Basic Space Sciences held in Bonn in 1996 founded WGSSA. It is an international and non-governmental organization whose long-term objective is to make possible the creation of an African Institute for Space Sciences. The immediate strategic objective of the Working Group is to promote education in (a) astronomy and astrophysics, (b) solar-terrestrial interaction and its influence on terrestrial climate, (c) planetary and atmospheric studies and (d) the origin of life and exobiology.

In 1999, the Physics Department of the University of Zambia launched a membership drive for the WGSSA. The membership drive involved the distribution of the WGSSA membership forms obtained by the Department from the WGSSA coordinator Dr Peter Martinez of the South African Astronomical Observatory. The forms were distributed to various institutions involved in space sciences of one form or another. The response was quite encouraging; a total of 38 members were registered and the Department forwarded their forms to the WGSSA coordinator. It was motivating for registered members to have received individual letters of acknowledgement from the coordinator of the WGSSA, urging them to support the WGSSA activities and its publication, "African Skies/Cieux Africains" by contributing articles and communication news of developments in space science in Zambia.

International Co-operation
Zambia has no experience of astronomy education. In order to effectively succeed in introducing astronomy education, it is necessary to establish strong links with external institutions and individual scientists with wide experience of astronomy education and research. The links will promote skills, which Zambian scientists are lacking and this will be beneficial to the general development of astronomy. The Physics Department of the University of Zambia has already established a link with the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO). Two members of the department have visited South Africa and participated in SAAO-organized summer schools. In 1999, Dr. Peter Martinez of SAAO, who is the current coordinator of the WGSSA, visited Zambia during the inauguration of the Working Group on Space Sciences in Zambia. His visit was a landmark in the promotion of space sciences in Zambia and has strengthened the image of the Working Group in Zambia. Besides the SAAO link, the Physics Department has links with individual scientists who have assisted in the provision of materials such as journals, slides and bulletins.

As already mentioned, the prime factors that influence curriculum change in Zambia are (a) the government, (b) external agents (donors) and (c) the interests of individuals or groups of scientists and teachers. The interplay of these factors is now possible through the current space sciences activities at the University of Zambia. First and foremost it is necessary to strengthen the existing structures. Either the Astronomical Society or the Working Group should be made to function thoroughly and efficiently so that it can be easier to advance the interests of promoting space science in Zambia. There is a need to convince the government (in this case CDC), the teachers and the funding agencies to implement curriculum changes responding to the needs of astronomy education. However, we should realise that the promotion of astronomy in Zambia is taking place against a background of social and economic change. This means that a systematic approach requiring dedication from the organisers is necessary for achieving the end results. The association should initiate programs aimed at:

• Influencing the integration of curriculum reform with an initial training of a small number of schoolteachers in space sciences. These teachers will transfer the acquired knowledge with enthusiasm to other teachers in schools and can reduce the shunning away of the Universe topics at school level. The training can be accomplished through a series of workshops or summer schools.
• Circulation of information on space sciences through public lectures, slides, videos and newsletters.
• Initiation of a program of exchange of scientists for collaborative training and R&D programs with institutions like SAAO. This will enable high level access of Zambian scientists to astronomical facilities.
• Establishing liaison between national institutions dealing with the components of space sciences.
• Assist where possible the learning institutions to lobby funds for the acquisition of equipment and facilities necessary for teaching astronomy. As an example, in 1998 Prof. Donat Wentzel offered the University of Zambia $500 American dollars for the purchase of a telescope. Though a telescope costing this amount was found in the USA, the Physics Department of the University of Zambia failed to meet the cost of transporting it from America. This would have been possible had there been a program dedicated to the acquisition of such instruments.

Financial support from IAU for G. Munyeme to attend the 24th General Assembly in Manchester is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank Allan Batten, Peter Martinez, Donat Wentzel, Julieta Fierro, Barrie Jones and Jayant Nalikar for their assistance in promoting the activities at the University of Zambia.

References

1. G. Munyeme, "Constraints and Prospects of Education and Research for Basic Space Science Development in Zambia," UN/ESA Workshops on Basic Space Science, Honduras 1997.
2. Addriaan Blaauw, History of the IAU, Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht, 1994.
3. Kelly. M.J, "Education in a declining Economy, the case of Zambia, 1975-1985," EDI Analytical Case studies No. 8, 1991.
4. Ivor F. Goodson, School Subjects and Curriculum Change, Croom Helm, 1983, London.
5. S. Stobie, Development of Astronomy within Africa, IITAP reports, 1998.